Michael Richmond has provided an excellent description of the physics of atmospheric extinction (and refraction) on his Atmospheric Effects:…
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Supernovae, the Fate of our Sun, and the Distribution of Heavy Elements in the Earth
To answer your first question, I believe that the answer is yes, in that almost all of the nuclear…

A Question About Population III Stars
Even though Population III stars, thought to be the first stars in the universe, are only theoretical entities at…

What is the Average Distance Between Stars in our Galaxy?
I think what you are asking for is the average distance between any two stars in our galaxy. That…

Is There a Difference Between Stars at the Center of the Milky Way and Those at its Edge?
In fact, the individual properties of stars in our galaxy and other galaxies are pretty well understood and found…

What are the Average Distances Between Stars and Between Galaxies?
Your estimate for the average distance between stars is reasonable. Your estimate for the average distance between galaxies is…